ལྕགས་མདུད་

Imagen en un comentario en Facebook 

La imagen superior apareció en un muro de Facebook cuyos comentarios son  pro-católicos. Me llamo la atención porque no solamente contradice uno de los fundamentos del canon cristiano que dice que Dios es la fuente de la Moral, sino que lo hace de una manera agresiva. ¿En que sentido fue interpretada esta frase? La mentalidad  religiosa, específicamente, la de tipo evangélico fundamentalista que parece ahora permear todas las denominaciones cristianas en Estados Unidos y México, incluyendo a la católica, es un misterio para mi.

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Chagdud Tulku (Tibetan: ལྕགས་མདུད་, Wylie: Lcags-mdud) Rinpoche (1930–2002) was a teacher of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. He was known and respected in the West for his teachings, his melodic chanting voice, his artistry as a sculptor and painter, and his skill as a physician. He acted as a spiritual guide for thousands of students worldwide.^[1]
Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche was the fourteenth recognized Chagdud incarnation. Chagdud Gonpa centers practice Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, primarily in the Nyingmapa tradition of Guru Padmasambhava.

fairness and reciprocity

Published on Apr 10, 2012

http://www.ted.com Empathy, cooperation, fairness and reciprocity -- caring about the well-being of others seems like a very human trait. But Frans de Waal shares some surprising videos of behavioral tests, on primates and other mammals, that show how many of these moral traits all of us share.

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Uploaded on Sep 18, 2008

Psychologist Jonathan Haidt studies the five moral values that form the basis of our political choices, whether we're left, right or center. In this eye-opening talk, he pinpoints the moral values that liberals and conservatives tend to honor most.

happiness and positive thinking

Published on Jun 23, 2013

Most of us think we know what would make us happy and that our only problem is getting it. But research in psychology, behavioral economics, and cognitive neuroscience shows that people are not very good at predicting what will make them happy, how happy it will make them, and how long that happiness will last. One reason for this is that our cultures provide us with both wisdom and myth about the true sources of human happiness.

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Uploaded on Dec 17, 2008

http://www.ted.com Dan Gilbert presents research and data from his exploration of happiness -- sharing some surprising tests and experiments that you can also try on yourself.

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Published on Mar 13, 2013

Oliver Burkeman, winner of the Foreign Press Association Young Journalist of the Year Award, explores "happiness for people who can't stand positive thinking" in his best-selling book The Antidote: Happiness for People Who Can't Stand Positive Thinking.

Burkeman says "For a civilisation so fixated on achieving happiness, we seem remarkably incompetent at the task. Self-help books don't seem to work. Few of the many advantages of modern life seem capable of lifting our collective mood. Wealth -- even if you can get it -- doesn't necessarily lead to happiness. Romance, family life and work often seem to bring as much stress as joy. We can't even agree on what 'happiness' means".

Oliver Burkeman seeks answers from an unusual collection of people -- experimental psychologists and Buddhists, terrorism experts, spiritual teachers, business consultants, philosophers -- who share a single, surprising way of thinking about life. They argue that 'positive thinking' and relentless optimism aren't the solution, but part of the problem. And that there is an alternative, 'negative path' to happiness and success that involves embracing failure, pessimism, insecurity and uncertainty -- those things we spend our lives trying to avoid. Thought provoking, counterintuitive and ultimately uplifting, The Antidote is a celebration of the power of negative thinking.

New York based Burkeman, is a regular contributor to The Guardian. His work has also appeared in Esquire, Elle, GQ, the Observer and the New Republic. He holds a degree in Social and Political Sciences from Cambridge University.

실미도

Silmido is an uninhabited island next to Muuido Island in the Yellow Sea. Silmido is located in the west coast of South Korea. It has 0.25081km2 land area and 6 km circumference. It is 20 km from Incheon Metropolitan City of southwest and is about 5 km away from Incheon International Airport. Silmido is connected two times a day to Muuido as mud flat. Most of this island consists of mountains that are around 80m high.^[1]
Silmido became historically significant when it was used as the training ground of Unit 684 army group. On 1968, January 21, North Korea’s guerrillas infiltrated the border and reached till Segumjunggogae (Sinyeong-dong, Jongno-gu), a suburb  of Seoul, to attack the Blue House to assassinate the President Park Chung-hee.^[2] Due to this incident the Central Intelligence Agency of South Korea built 209th Detachment, 2325th Group (unit 684- 1968. April) in revenge.  unit 684 members had to endure hellish training for 3 years and 4 months. However, during the training period, South Korean government decided to follow policy that ties the two countries. Unit 684 members escaped Silmido by mutiny. However, they were stoped by government troops in Youngdungpo-gu Daebang-dong. Then, Unit 684 group committed suicide in a stolen bus (they exploded grenades , 4 members survive) on August 23rd 1971.^[3]


After the novel ‘Silmido’(1999) of Baek Dong-ho was published, Silmido became known.

Silmido is a 2003 South Korean film, directed by Kang Woo-suk. It is based on the true story of Unit 684, though parts of the film are extrapolations as the actual details of events are unknown. The film was both critically well received and a financial success, and was the first film in South Korea to attract a box office audience of over 10 million viewers.

On 21 January 1968, 31 North Korean commandos of Unit 124 are shown to have infiltrated South Korea in a failed mission to assassinate President Park Chung-hee.
As a means of retaliation, the South Korean military assembled a team of 31 social outcasts including criminals on death row and life imprisonment, in a plot to kill Kim Il-sung. The team is designated 'Unit 684'. The recruits are taken to the island of Silmido for training. The mission is offered to the recruits as the only way to redeem themselves and show their loyalty to their country. If they succeed, they will win their freedom and a new life. With this goal in mind, they endure their training. The training is shown over several months, with the recruits enduring various forms of extremely vigorous training and regular physical punishment, including being branded. One recruit is killed after he falls from a ropes course.
At the end of their training, they are dispatched on their mission to North Korea, but are recalled not long after their departure. It is revealed that the project has been called off, as the government attempts a peaceful reunification with the North. The recruits return to Silmido discouraged and frustrated. Shortly afterwards two of the Unit 684 members escape from their barracks and rape a female doctor. They are quickly discovered, and believing that they will be executed, decide to commit suicide. One kills the other at his request but is apprehended before he is able to kill himself. The apprehended soldier is then returned to the camp, tied up, and made to watch his fellow Unit 684 members being beaten by the guards for the two men's betrayal. Enraged, one of the Unit 684 members being beaten is able to take his guard's bat and kills the tied up soldier for bringing disgrace to the unit.
To keep the plot to kill Kim Il-sung unknown to the outside world, the South Korean intelligence agency decide to kill all the members of Unit 684. The unit's commander protests, but is told that if his troops failed to follow this order, they too would be killed alongside Unit 684. Torn between his duty to follow orders and his personal honor, the commander intentionally leaks this information to one of the Unit 684 members. Unit 684, realizing they are going to be killed that same night, make plans to mutiny. They attack and kill the majority of their guards, and find out from one of the guards that they legally no longer exist, and never would have received recognition for their mission if it succeeded, nor even be allowed to return to society. Unit 684 decide to escape from the island and make their story known. The 20 remaining members of Unit 684 capture a bus containing civilians and head to Seoul. An official pronouncement is heard over the radio that 20 "armed communist agents" have infiltrated the country, and a state of emergency is declared. After charging through one army roadblock and winning a firefight they are eventually stopped and surrounded by soldiers in front of the Yuhan Corporation building in Dongjak District, Seoul. A firefight ensures, with the South Korean army showing no regard for the welfare of the civilians on board the bus. All of the Unit 684 members are either killed or wounded, and many South Korean soldiers are also killed. The surviving Unit 684 members release the civilians who have not been killed by the South Korean army, before committing suicide using their own hand grenades. An investigation into the incident is shown to have been carried out; however the report is not read and is seen to be filed away in storage.

The release of this film brought public attention to Unit 684, and in 2006 the South Korean government released an official report on the unit and the uprising, officially acknowledging its existence for the first time.^[4] Brigadier general Nam Dae Yeon said that the 31 Silmido recruits who made up Unit 684 were part of an air force squadron. Seven died in training and 20 were killed in the uprising. The four who survived were executed after a military trial in 1972.^[5] Nam stated that documents describing Unit 684's mission no longer exist, but the government has not denied that its mission was to kill Kim Il-sung.^[5]
What actually caused the uprising on August 23, 1971, is unclear. The film shows the government deciding that the recruits had to be killed because they knew too much. The recruits find out and revolt. Jonathan Kim, the film's producer, acknowledges that history is unclear at this point.^[5]
Six guards survived the Silmido uprising. One of the guards, Yang Dong Su, confirmed that the unit's mission had been to infiltrate North Korea and kill Kim Il-sung. Yang stated that though the film portrays the 31 recruits as death-row inmates, most were petty criminals. Yang stated that "They were the kind who would get into street fights a lot". Yang also gives his version of why the uprising occurred.

They revolted because they felt that they were never going to get the chance to go to North Korea and that they would never be allowed to leave the island. They were in despair.^[5]

—Yang Dong Su

On May 19, 2010, the Seoul Central District Court ordered that the government pay 273 million won in compensation to the families of 21 members of Unit 684. The court found that "the Silmido agents were not informed of the level of danger involved with their training, and the harshness of the training violated their basic human rights" and also acknowledged the emotional pain the government caused by not officially disclosing the agents’ deaths to family members until 2006.^[4]

米百俵

Published on Sep 27, 2013

中村嘉津雄 真行寺君枝 尾藤イサオ 三原じゅん子 長谷川明夫
文部省特選
ストーリー： 越後長岡藩が、戊辰戦争で維新政府軍に破れ、その日の糧にも事欠く悲惨な状況にあった­時、分家の三根山藩から米百俵が見舞いとして贈られてきました。しかし、小林虎三郎は­この米を藩士たちに分配せず、学校設立資金として換金しようと決断したのです。「教育­こそ百年の大計、人物を創れ！」怒り狂う藩士たちに向かって死を覚悟で信念を貫き通し­、偉業を成し遂げる物語です。
ハイビジョンアワード1993選定委員長賞受賞
第６回東京国際映画祭出品作品
1993国際エレクトロシネマフェスティバル出品作品

226

Published on Jan 1, 2013

サブタイトル：英語、ハンガリー語
二・二六事件の発生から終結までの四日間を、オールスターキャストで描いた五社英雄監­督作品。原作・脚本は笠原和夫。
　昭和11年2月26日。昭和維新を掲げた陸軍の青年将校たちは、1500人にも及ぶ決­起部隊を率いてクーデターを起こした。彼らは雪の降る中、岡田首相、高橋蔵相、斎藤内­大臣、鈴木侍従長などを襲撃。翌27日に戒厳令が施行され、決起部隊は原隊への復帰命­令を受けた。原隊からの食糧提供も止められ、将校たちは自分の家族や恋人のことを思い­返す。野中大尉は安藤大尉に部隊の原隊復帰を説得、最初は抵抗していた安藤も兵士たち­を投降させることにした。安藤は拳銃自殺を図るが未遂に終わる。野中は拳銃で自決した­。決起部隊の19人の将校たちは軍法会議で有罪となり、銃殺刑に処せられるのだった。

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The February 26 Incident (二・二六事件 Niniroku Jiken^?) (also known as the 2-26 Incident) was an attempted coup d'état in Japan on 26 February 1936. It was organized by a group of young Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) officers with the goal of purging the government and military leadership of their factional rivals and ideological opponents.
Although the rebels succeeded in assassinating several leading officials (including two former Prime Ministers) and in occupying the government center of Tokyo, they failed to assassinate the current Prime Minister Keisuke Okada or secure control of the Imperial Palace. Their supporters in the army made attempts to capitalize on their actions, but divisions within the military, combined with Imperial anger at the coup, meant they were unable to achieve a change of government. Facing overwhelming opposition as the army moved against them, the rebels surrendered on 29 February.^[3]
Unlike earlier examples of political violence by young officers, the coup attempt had severe consequences. After a series of closed trials, 19 of the uprising's leaders were executed for mutiny and another 40 imprisoned. The radical Kōdō-ha faction lost its influence within the army, the period of "government by assassination" came to a close, and the military increased its control over the civilian government.

The Imperial Japanese Army had a long history of factionalism among its high-ranking officers, originally stemming from domainal rivalries in the Meiji period. By the early 1930s, officers in the high command had become split into two main informal groups: the Kōdō-ha "Imperial Way" faction led by Gen. Araki Sadao and his ally Gen. Jinzaburō Mazaki and the Tōsei-ha "Control" faction identified with Gen. Tetsuzan Nagata.^[4][5][6]
The Kōdō-ha emphasized the importance of Japanese culture, spiritual purity over material quality, and the need to attack the Soviet Union while the Tōsei-ha officers, who were strongly influenced by the ideas of the contemporary German general staff, supported central economic and military planning (total war theory), technological modernization, mechanization, and expansion within China. The Kōdō-ha was dominant in the army during Araki's tenure as Minister of War from 1931 to 1934, occupying most significant staff positions, but many of its members were replaced by Tōsei-ha officers following Araki's resignation.^[7][8]

The Young Officers

Army officers were divided between those whose education had ended at the Army Academy (a secondary school) and those who had advanced on to the prestigious Army War College. The latter group formed the elite of the officer corps, while officers of the former group were effectively barred by tradition from advancement to staff positions. A number of these lesser-privileged officers formed the army's contribution to the young, highly politicized group often referred to as the "young officers" (青年将校 seinen shōkō^?).^[9][10]
The young officers believed that the problems facing the nation were the result of Japan straying from the "kokutai" (国体^?) (an amorphous term often translated as "national polity", it roughly signifies the relationship between the Emperor and the state). The "privileged classes" exploited the people, leading to widespread poverty in rural areas, and deceived the Emperor, usurping his power and weakening Japan. The solution, they believed, was a "Shōwa Restoration" modeled on the Meiji Restoration of 70 years earlier. By rising up and destroying the "evil advisers around the Throne", the officers would enable the Emperor to re-establish his authority. The Emperor would then purge Western ideas and those who exploited the people, restoring prosperity to the nation. These beliefs were strongly influenced by contemporary nationalist thought, especially the political philosophy of the former socialist Ikki Kita.^[11]
The loose-knit group varied in size, but is estimated to have had roughly a hundred regular members, mostly officers in Tokyo area. Its informal leader was Mitsugi (Zei) Nishida. Nishida, a former army lieutenant and disciple of Kita, had become a prominent member of the civilian nationalist societies that proliferated from the late 1920s. Nishida referred to the army group as the Kokutai Genri-ha (国体原理派 "National Principle"^?) faction. Involved to at least some extent in most of the political violence of the period, following the March and October Incidents of 1931, the army and navy members of the group split and largely ended their association with civilian nationalists.^[12][13][14]
Despite its relatively small size, the faction was influential, due in no small part to the threat it posed. It had sympathizers among the general staff and imperial family (most notably Prince Chichibu, the Emperor's brother (and, until 1933, heir), who was friends with Nishida and other Kokutai Genri-ha leaders). Despite being fiercely anti-capitalist, it had also managed to secure irregular funding from zaibatsu leaders who hoped to shield themselves.^[15]
The exact nature of the relationship between the Kōdō-ha and the Kokutai Genri-ha is complicated. The two factions are often treated as the same or as two groups forming a larger whole. Contemporary accounts and the writings of members of the two groups make clear they were actually distinct groups in a mutually beneficial alliance, however. The Kōdō-ha shielded the Kokutai Genri-ha and provided it with access while they in exchange benefited from their perceived ability to restrain the radical officers.^[16][17][18]

Political Violence

The years leading up to the February 26 Incident were marked by a series of outbursts of violence by the young officers and their fellow nationalists against their political opponents. Most notably, in the May 15 Incident of 1932 young naval officers assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi. This incident is significant because it convinced the young army officers (who were aware of, but not involved in the attack) of the need to utilize troops in any potential coup attempt. The ringleaders of the incident, as in the previous March and October incidents, received relatively light punishments.^[19]
The direct prelude to the coup, however, was the 1934 Military Academy Incident (November Incident) and its consequences. In this incident Capt. Takaji Muranaka and Capt. Asaichi Isobe, prominent members of the Kokutai Genri-ha, were arrested for planning a coup with a group of military cadets. Muranaka and Isobe admitted discussing such a coup, but denied having any plans to actually carry it out. The military court investigating the incident found there was insufficient evidence to indict, but Muranaka and Isobe were suspended by the army. The two were convinced that the incident was a Tōsei-ha attack on the young officers and began circulating a pamphlet calling for a "housecleaning" of the army and naming Nagata as the "chief villain". They were then expelled from the army.^[20][21][22]
It was at this time that the last Kōdō-ha officer in a prominent position, Gen. Mazaki, was forced from office. The young officers were enraged by Mazaki's removal because, having become disillusioned with Araki for his failures to overcome resistance in the cabinet during his time as War Minister, Mazaki had become the focus of their hopes. Muranaka and Isobe released a new pamphlet attacking Nagata for the dismissal, as did Nishida.^[23][24][25]
On 12 August 1935, in the "Aizawa Incident", Lt. Colonel Saburō Aizawa, a member of the Kokutai Genri-ha and a friend of Mazaki, murdered Nagata in his office in retaliation. Aizawa's public trial (which began in late January 1936) became a media sensation as Aizawa and the Kokutai Genri-ha leadership, in collusion with the judges, turned it into a soapbox from which their ideology could be broadcast. Aizawa's supporters in the mass media praised Aizawa's "morality and patriotism", and Aizawa himself came to be seen as "a simple soldier who sought only to reform the army and the nation according to the true National Principle."

日本映画

日本映画、まだまだここに在りですね。武士の魂を見せてもらった感です。



Yoshimura Kan'ichiro (main character in this movie):
Excerpt, "There is little record of his participation in battle, however his name is seen in some records as a negotiator."

The real story may have been very different.


What a romanticization of the samurai way of life. I liked the Twighlight Samurai film more. This film is well produced and acted, it just seems too sentimental and a waste of emotion on such a historically brutal system of governance and an unbalanced warrior culture.

βιβλία

Por el año 605 a.C., el Pueblo de Israel sufrió una dispersión o, como se le conoce Bíblicamente, una "diáspora". El rey Nabuconodosor conquistó a Jerusalén y llevó a los israelitas cautivos a Babilonia, comenzando de Babilónica" (cf. 2 Reyes 24, 12; y 2 Reyes 25, 1).

Pero no todos los israelitas fueron llevado cautivos, un "resto" quedó en Israel: 2 Reyes 25, 12; 2 Reyes 25, 22; Jeremías 40, 11; Ezequiel 33, 27. También un número de Israelitas no fueron cautivos a Babilonia sino que fueron a Egipto: 2 Reyes 25, 26; Jeremías 42, 14; Jeremías 43, 7.

El rey Ciro de Persia conquistó a Babilonia (2 Crónicas 36, 20; 2 Crónicas 36, 23) y dio la libertad a los israelitas de regresar a Israel, terminando así su esclavitud. Algunos regresaron a Palestina (Esdras 1, 5; 7, 28; y Nehemías 2, 11) pero otros se fueron en vez a Egipto, estableciéndose, en su mayoría, en la ciudad de Alejandría (fundada por Alejandro Magno en el 322 a.C, contaba con la biblioteca mas importante del mundo en esa época). En esta gran ciudad convivían griegos, judíos y egipcios. Así que los judíos estaban disgregados aun después del fin del cautiverio, unos en Palestina y otros en la diáspora, sobre todo en Alejandría. En el tiempo de Jesús habían mas judíos en Alejandría que en la misma Palestina (1 Macabeos 1, 1)

Mientras la primera semejanza de un canon hebreo se empieza a formar, la lengua hebrea comienza a morir y desapareció completamente para el año 135 a.C. Por esta razón Jesús y sus contemporáneos en Palestina hablaban arameo, un dialecto del hebreo.

La Traducción de los Setenta (Septuagésima)

Como en la mayor parte del mundo civilizado, la lengua principal de Alejandría en el siglo III a.C. era el griego. Había por eso gran necesidad de una traducción griega de las Sagradas Escrituras. La historia relata que Demetrio de Faleron, el bibliotecario de Plotomeo II (285-246 a.C.), quería unas copias de la Ley Judía para la Biblioteca de Alejandría. La traducción se realizó a inicios del siglo tercero a.C. y se llamó la Traducción de los Setenta (por el número de traductores que trabajaron en la obra). Comenzando con el Torá, tradujeron todas las Sagradas Escrituras, es decir todo lo que es hoy conocido por los cristianos como el Antiguo Testamento. Introdujeron también una nueva organización e incluyeron Libros Sagrados que, por ser mas recientes, no estaban en los antiguos cánones pero eran generalmente reconocidos como sagrados por los judíos. Se trata de siete libros, escritos en griego, que son llamados hoy deuterocanónicos. Vemos entonces que no hay un "silencio bíblico" (una ausencia de Revelación) en los siglos precedentes al nacimiento de Jesús. 

La Traducción de los Setenta contiene los textos originales de algunos de los deuterocanónicos (Sabiduría y 2 Macabeos) y la base canónica de otros, ya sea en parte (Ester, Daniel y Sirac) o completamente (Tobit, Judit, Baruc y 1 Macabeos).

La Traducción de de los Setenta es la que se usaba en tiempo de Jesucristo y los Apóstoles

La versión alejandrina, con los siete libros deuterocanónicos, se propagó mucho y era la generalmente usada por los judíos en la era Apostólica. Por esta razón no es sorprendente que esta fuera la traducción utilizada por Cristo y los escritores del Nuevo Testamento. 300 de las 350 referencias al Antiguo Testamento que se hacen en el Nuevo Testamento son tomadas de la versión alejandrina. Por es no hay duda de que la Iglesia apostólica del primer siglo aceptó los libros deuterocanónicos como parte de su canon (libros reconocidos como Palabra de Dios). Por ejemplo, Orígenes, (Padre de la Iglesia, † 254), afirmó que los cristianos usaban estos libros aunque algunos líderes judíos no los aceptaban oficialmente.

Al final del primer siglo de la era cristiana, una escuela judía, quizás de rabinos, hicieron un canon hebreo en la ciudad de Jamnia, en Palestina. Cerraron el canon con los profetas Esdras (458 a. C.), Nehemías (445 a. C.), y Malaquías (433 a. C.). Este canon comprendía de 22 a 24 libros. No rechazaron los libros deuterocanónicos definitivamente, pero no los incluyeron entre los canónicos. El canon reconocido por los judíos no se fijó hasta mas de cien años después. Aun entonces, los libros "deuterocanónicos" siguieron siendo leídos y respetados por los judíos. Mientras tanto los cristianos siguieron reconociendo la versión alejandrina. Es así que surgieron los dos cánones del Antíguo Testamento.

Los dos cánones del Antiguo Testamento

El canon de Alejandría (la traducción de los Setenta al griego, hecha antes de Cristo y aceptada por todos los cristianos y muchos judíos, que contiene los libros deuterocanónicos).

El canon de Palestina (Jamnia, traducción hebrea hecha después de Cristo).

Los historiadores ponen como fecha en que se fijaron los cánones de las traducciones de Alejandría y de Palestina para el siglo segundo de nuestra era. El Obispo Melito de Sardis registró la primera lista conocida del canon alejandrino en el año 170 A.D. Contenía 45/46 libros (el libro de Lamentaciones se consideraba como parte de Jeremías). El canon Palestino contenía solo 39 libros pues no tenía los libros 7 libros Deuterocanónicos.

La Vulgata de San Jerónimo

La primera traducción de la Biblia al latín fue hecha por San Jerónimo y se llamó Vulgata (año 383 AD). El latín era entonces el idioma común en el mundo Mediterráneo. San Jerónimo en un principio tradujo del texto hebreo del canon de Palestina. Su estilo era mas elegante y en algunas frases distinto a la Traducción de los Setenta. Además le faltaban los libros deuterocanónicos por no estar en el texto hebreo. Esto produjo una polémica entre los cristianos. En defensa de su traducción, San Jerónimo escribió una carta: Ad Pachmmachium de optimo genere interpretandi, la cual es el primer tratado acerca de la traductología. Por eso se le considera el padre de esta disciplina. Ahí explica, entre otras cosas el motivo por el cual considera inexacta a la septuagésima. Finalmente se aceptó su versión, pero con la inclusión de los libros deuterocanónicos. Por eso la Vulgata tiene todos los 46 libros.

La Iglesia establece el canon

La controversia sobre que libros son canónicos fue larga, extendiéndose hasta el siglo IV y aun mas tarde. Las polémicas con los herejes, particularmente los seguidores de Marción, que rechazaban libros generalmente reconocidos por los Padres, hizo que la Iglesia definiera con autoridad la lista de los libros sagrados (el canon).

Los concilios de la Iglesia, el Concilio de Hipona, en el año 393 y el Concilio de Cartago, en el año 397 y 419, ambos en el norte de África, confirmaron el canon Alejandrino (con 46 libros para el Antiguo Testamento) y también fijaron el canon del Nuevo Testamento con 27 libros. La carta del papa S. Inocencio I en el 405, también oficialmente lista estos libros. Finalmente, el Concilio de Florencia (1442) definitivamente estableció la lista oficial de 46 libros del A.T. y los 27 del N.T.

El canon del Nuevo Testamento se definió en el siglo IV tras un largo y difícil proceso de discernimiento

El mismo nombre de "Nuevo Testamento" no se usó hasta el siglo II. Uno de los criterios para aceptar o no los libros fue que tuviese como autor a un apóstol; su uso, especialmente en la liturgia en las Iglesias Apostólicas y la conformidad con la fe de la Iglesia. Fue bajo estos criterios que algunos evangelios atribuidos a los Apóstoles (ej. Ev de Tomás, Ev. de Pedro) fueron rechazados. El evangelio de San Juan y el Apocalipsis se consideraron por largo tiempo como dudosos por el atractivo que tenían con grupos sectarios y milenaristas.

Todos los católicos aceptaron el canon de la Biblia fijado por los concilios mencionados y, como este canon no fue causa de seria controversia hasta el siglo XVI, no se necesitó definir el canon de la Biblia como una verdad infalible.

A la Biblia Protestante le faltan libros

En el 1534, Martín Lutero tradujo la Biblia al alemán y agrupó los siete libros deuterocanónicos bajo el título de "apócrifos", señalando: "estos son libros que no se tienen por iguales a las Sagradas Escrituras y sin embargo son útiles y buenos para leer." Es así como los protestantes llegaron a considera a los deuterocanónicos como libros no aceptados en el canon, o sea como libros apócrifos.

Siempre los cristianos habían reconocido esos libros como parte de la Biblia. Los concilios del siglo IV y posteriores habían confirmado la creencia cristiana. La opinión de Lutero era mas bien la de los judíos que seguían la traducción de Jamnia. Es por eso que los protestantes, carecen de los libros deuterocanónicos de la Biblia:

• Tobías
• Judit
• Ester (protocanónico con partes deuterocanónicas)
• Daniel (protocanónico con partes deuterocanónicas)
• I Macabeos
• II Macabeos
• Sabiduría
• Eclesiástico (también llamado "Sirac")
• Baruc

Lutero no solo eliminó libros del Antiguo Testamento sino que hizo cambios en el Nuevo Testamento

"Él [Martín Lutero] había declarado que la persona no se justifica por la fe obrando en el amor, sino sólo por la fe. Llegó incluso a añadir la palabra "solamente" después de la palabra "justificado" en su traducción alemana de Romanos 3, 28, y llamó a la Carta de Santiago "epístola falsificada" porque Santiago dice explícitamente: "Veis que por las obras se justifica el hombre y no sólo por la fe". (Scott y Kimberly HAHN, Roma dulce hogar, ed. Rialp, Madrid, 2000, página 57; Scott Hahn fue ministro protestante, presbiteriano antes de su conversión)

Se tomó la libertad de separar los libros del Nuevo Testamento de la siguiente manera:

• Libros sobre la obra de Dios para la salvación: Juan, Romanos, Gálatas, Efesios, I Pedro y I Juan.
• Otros libros canónicos: Mateo, Marcos, Lucas, Hechos, el resto de las cartas de Pablo, II Pedro y II de Juan.
• Los libros no canónicos: Hebreos, Santiago, Judas, Apocalipsis y libros del Antiguo Testamento.

Los protestantes tienen los mismos libros que los católicos en el Nuevo Testamento porque no aceptaron los cambios de Lutero para esta parte del canon.

Los protestantes y evangélicos se encuentran en una posición contradictoria

Reconocen el canon establecido por los concilios del siglo IV para el Nuevo Testamento (los 27 libros que ellos tienen) pero no reconocen esa misma autoridad para el canon del AT.

Es interesante notar que la Biblia Gutenberg, la primera Biblia impresa, es la Biblia latina (Vulgata), por lo tanto, contenía los 46 libros del canon alejandrino.

Posición de la Iglesia Anglicana (episcopalianos)

Según los 39 Artículos de Religión (1563) de la Iglesia de Inglaterra, los libros deuterocanónicos pueden ser leídos para "ejemplo de vida e instrucción de costumbres", pero no deben ser usados para "establecer ninguna doctrina" (Artículo VI). Consecuentemente, la Biblia, versión del Rey Jaime (1611) imprimió estos libros entre el N.T. y el A.T. Pero Juan Lightfoot (1643) criticó este orden alegando que los "malditos apócrifos" pudiesen ser así vistos como un puente entre el A.T. y el N.T. La Confesión de Westminster (1647) decidió que estos libros, "al no ser de inspiración divina, no son parte del canon de las Escrituras y, por lo tanto, no son de ninguna autoridad de la Iglesia de Dios ni deben ser en ninguna forma aprobados o utilizados mas que otros escritos humanos".

雨あがる

In the beginning of the Eighteenth Century, in the transition period between the luxurious Genroku Era (1688-1703) and the simple Kyocho Era (1716-1735), the ronin - a samurai without a master - Ihei Misawa (Akira Terao) and his sweet wife Tayo Misawa (Yoshiko Miyazaki) are trapped in a very humble inn with very poor guests. The rain does not stop, and the group is unable to follow their journeys, once the water level of the river is too high to be crossed. The good and decent Ilhei goes to a dojo without the knowledge of Tayo and disputes a fight, and with the collected money, he buys food and sake for the starving costumers, making the people very happy. After the rain, in an incident with some locals, he meets the feudal landlord, Lord Nagai Izuminokami Shigeaki (Shiro Mifune), who invites him to be the chief of art of fencing of his warriors, but the envy and proud prevail and Misawa is dismissed from the aimed job. The quiet Tayo decides to present her optimistic and touching viewpoint of what happened to Ilhei.

Written by Claudio Carvalho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

La mente

Demasiadas veces se relaciona la vejez con la pérdida de facultades mentales. Pero especialistas en el funcionamiento del cerebro como Tony Buzan aseguran que no tiene por qué ser así.

The Middle Way

Buddhism is a nontheistic religion that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one". According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.^[1] He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of craving and ignorance by way of understanding and the seeing of dependent origination, with the ultimate goal of attainment of the sublime state of nirvana.^[2]
Two major branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar etc.). Mahayana is found throughout East Asia (China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore, Taiwan etc.) and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana.
While Buddhism is practiced primarily in Asia, both major branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way Buddhist adherence is defined. Estimates range from 350 million to 1.6 billion, with 350–550 million the most widely accepted figure. Buddhism is also recognized as one of the fastest growing religions in the world.^[3][4][5][6]
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.^[7] The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community). Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.^[8] Other practices may include following ethical precepts; support of the monastic community; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic; the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment; study of scriptures; devotional practices; ceremonies; and in the Mahayana tradition, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.

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The Way of Zen

by Alan Wilson Watts

The Way of Zen begins as a succinct guide through the histories of Buddhism and Taoism leading up to the development of Zen Buddhism, which drew deeply from both traditions. It then goes on to paint a broad but insightful picture of Zen as it was and is practiced, both as a religion and as an element of diverse East Asian arts and disciplines. Watts's narrative clears away the mystery while enhancing the mystique of Zen.

Since the first publication of this book in 1957, Zen Buddhism has become firmly established in the West. As Zen has taken root in Western soil, it has incorporated much of the attitude and approach set forth by Watts in The Way of Zen, which remains one of the most important introductory books in Western Zen